Selected prehospital studies reporting analgesia effectiveness
| Setting (reference) | Analgesic | Early pain reduction (mean) | Pain reduction at handover |
|---|---|---|---|
| Retrospective observational, ambulance service, Australia10 | Mixed | – | 2.0 (median) |
| Prospective observational, battlefield, US Army11 | Buccal 1600 μg fentanyl lozenge | 5.8 (15 min) | – |
| Randomised controlled trial, paramedic, ambulance service, Wales, UK12 | Intravenous nalbuphine | – | 3.9 (mean) |
| Prospective observational, extremity injury, paramedic, Germany13 | Intravenous morphine | – | 5.4 (mean) |
| Randomised controlled trial, physician-staffed HEMS, USA14 | Intravenous morphine or fentanyl | – | 2.3 (mean) |
| Retrospective observational, paramedic ambulance service, USA15 | Intravenous fentanyl | – | 4.7 (mean) |
| Retrospective observational, ambulance service, Australia16 | Methoxyflurane, intranasal fentanyl | 1.8 (5 min) | 3.0 (mean) |
| Retrospective observational, ambulance service, USA17 | Intravenous morphine or fentanyl | – | 3.0 (mean) |
HEMS, helicopter emergency medical service.