Pathways to guide clinical care are well accepted and used in many emergency departments. We wanted to introduce a number ("bundle") over a short space of time and involve the whole patient stay in the pathway. It was hypothesised that a more efficient process would result with an overall reduction in length of stay (LoS).
A "bundle" of 14 evidence-based pathways of care was introduced into a medium-sized district general hospital (DGH) in late 2006/early 2007. These pathways covered emergency department care and acute medical care for a period of up to 48 h. A total of 8184 acute emergency admission episodes were audited, 3852 in the 8 months before introduction of the new pathways and 4332 in the 8 months after their introduction.
The overall effect of introducting the pathway bundle had a trend towards reduction in LoS by 0.2 days (95% CI –0.2 to 0.5), but this was not statistically significant (p>0.1). However, in those patients with <=2 diagnoses, the introduction of the pathway bundle had an independent effect in reducing LoS by 0.4 days (95% CI 0.04 to 0.7, p<0.01). In patients with <=2 diagnoses (63.0% of all pre-pathway cases and 63.4% of all post-pathway cases), the reduction in LoS equates to a saving of 2154 (CI 215 to 3769) bed days per annum or 5.9 (CI 0.6 to 10.3) beds saved each day. This reduced LoS represents an improvement of 2.5% (CI 0.25% to 4.38%) in medical bed usage. As this benefit occurs in the uncomplicated group of patients without multiple co-morbidities, such pathways would have the most effect in the type of patients who may be looked after by an emergency or acute physician. They are much less likely to be effective in those who require specialist intervention due to a more complicated presentation and possibly those with multiple co-morbidities.
The introduction of a bundle of evidence-based care pathways can modestly reduce LoS for certain types of acute medical patients in a DGH setting.
The Australasian Triage Scale is a simple five-point system of triage that forms the basis of triage in most emergency departments in Australia. The Manchester Triage System (MTS) is an algorithmic aid to the process of triage. It utilises a series of flow charts that lead the triage nurse to a logical choice of triage category also using a five-point scale.
To evaluate the inter-rater reliability of the MTS in an Australian emergency department.
50 triage scenarios were derived from the notes of 50 consecutive patients who had presented to the emergency department. All available nurses who had been trained to use the MTS were invited to participate in the study. The nurses were asked to assign a triage category to each scenario using the MTS. Weighted kappas were calculated for all pairs of raters.
20 nurses participated in the study. The range of kappas was 0.4007 to 0.8018, with a median of 0.6304.
The MTS is a reliable system of triage in the emergency department.
Topical anaesthetics reduce the pain of venous cannulation. The emergency department at the Starship Children’s Hospital in Auckland uses EMLA (an eutectic mixture of 25 mg/g lidocaine and 25 mg/g prilocaine) for topical anaesthesia. Amethocaine has recently been shown to be a more effective topical anaesthetic. It is suggested that, because amethocaine does not vasoconstrict veins, it may increase the success of cannulation.
The primary aim was to determine if amethocaine improves the success of cannulation compared with EMLA. The secondary aim was to determine if amethocaine is a more effective topical anaesthetic in a children’s emergency department.
A parallel, randomised, double-blind controlled study was performed in children aged 3 months to 15 years who were offered topical anaesthesia for venous cannulation. Caregivers gave verbal consent at triage, followed by written consent. Children were randomised into amethocaine or EMLA groups. Those who went on to have an intravenous cannula were analysed on an intention-to-treat basis. The primary outcome was a successful first attempt at cannulation. A convenience cohort was also observed for distress using a visual analogue scale and the Faces, Legs, Activity, Cry and Consolability Score.
From November 2006 to June 2007, 2837 children were enrolled and 809 were known to have had intravenous cannulation. 679 complete data and consent forms were returned. There was no significant difference between the first attempt success rates (75.8% amethocaine vs 73.9% EMLA) or between pain scores for the 65 observed cannulations.
Amethocaine is not more successful than EMLA for first attempt intravenous cannulation in a children’s emergency department.
Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Register ACTRN12606000409572.
Biphasic waveform defibrillation results in higher rates of termination of fibrillation than monophasic waveform defibrillation but has not been shown to improve survival outcomes.
To compare the effectiveness of a biphasic automated external defibrillator (AED) with a monophasic AED for witnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) due to ventricular fibrillation (VF).
In a prospective population-based cohort study, adults with witnessed VF OHCA were treated with either monophasic or biphasic waveform AED shocks. The primary outcome measure was neurologically favourable 1-month survival, defined as a Cerebral Performance Categories score of 1 or 2.
Of 366 adults with witnessed OHCA of presumed cardiac aetiology, 74 (20%) had VF. Termination of VF with the first shock tended to occur more frequently after biphasic AED shocks (36/44 (82%) vs 20/30 (67%), p = 0.14). Return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) occurred more frequently after biphasic AED shocks (29/44 (66%) vs 8/30 (27%), p = 0.001). Neurologically favourable 1-month survival was also more frequent in the biphasic group (10/44 (23%) vs 1/30 (3%), p = 0.04). The median time interval from the first shock to the second shock was 67 s in the monophasic group and 24 s in the biphasic group (p = 0.001).
Treatment with biphasic AED shocks improved the likelihood of ROSC and neurologically favourable 1-month survival after witnessed VF compared with monophasic AED shocks. In addition to waveform differences, a shorter time interval from the first shock to the second shock could account for the better outcomes with biphasic AED.
Advanced life support of patients contaminated with chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear (CBRN) substances requires adequate respiratory protection for medical first responders. Conventional and powered air-purifying respirators may exert a different impact during resuscitation and therefore require evaluation. This will help to improve major incident planning and measures for protecting medical staff.
A randomised crossover study was undertaken to investigate the influence of conventional negative pressure and powered air-purifying respirators on the simulated resuscitation of casualties contaminated with hazardous substances. Fourteen UK paramedics carried out a standardised resuscitation algorithm inside an ambulance vehicle, either unprotected or wearing a conventional or a powered respirator. Treatment times, wearer mobility, ease of communication and ease of breathing were determined and compared.
In the questionnaire, volunteers stated that communication and mobility were similar in both respirator groups while breathing resistance was significantly lower in the powered respirator group. There was no difference in mean (SD) treatment times between the groups wearing respiratory protection and the controls (245 (19) s for controls, 247 (17) s for conventional respirators and 250 (12) s for powered respirators).
Powered air-purifying respirators improve the ease of breathing and do not appear to reduce mobility or delay treatment during a simulated resuscitation scenario inside an ambulance vehicle with a single CBRN casualty.
To compare the degree to which the Emergency Severity Index (ESI) and the Manchester Triage System (MTS) predict admission and mortality.
A retrospective observational study of four emergency department (ED) databases was conducted. Patients who presented to the ED between 1 January and 18 July 2006 and were triaged with the ESI or MTS were included in the study.
37 974 patients triaged with the ESI and 34 258 patients triaged with the MTS were included. The likelihood of admission decreased significantly with urgency categories in both populations, and was greater for patients triaged with the ESI than with the MTS. Mortality rates were low in both populations. Most patients who died were triaged in the most urgent triage categories of both systems.
Both the ESI and MTS predicted admission well. The ESI was a better predictor of admission than the MTS. Mortality is associated with urgency categories of both triage systems.
In patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) with significant poisoning and reduced Glasgow coma score (GCS), the decision to proceed with rapid sequence intubation can be a difficult one. Traditionally, patients with a GCS of 8 or less are thought to require airway protection. It has been found that a number of these patients can be managed safely without advanced airway support in a well-monitored ward environment. The objective of this study was to define the key physiological indicators of intubation requirement in this complex group of patients.
Prospective parallel group comparison. The study was conducted in the ED of a Scottish teaching hospital over a 12-month period. Group 1 included all poisoned patients admitted to the ED with a GCS of 8 or less who were not intubated and managed conservatively in the short-stay ward. Group 2 included all poisoned patients with a reduced GCS who were intubated. Demographics and physiological parameters were analysed in both groups (intubated vs non-intubated).
12 patients were identified in the intubated group and 14 in the non-intubated group. Demographics were similar in both groups. Analyses of means and medians of physiological parameters indicated minimal predominance of oxygenation/ventilatory failure in the group requiring intubation. This correlated with the physician’s perception of inadequate airway protection or ventilatory failure.
Clinical assessment by experienced medical staff rather than physiological variables are the key to determining intubation requirements in the poisoned patient with reduced GCS. GCS alone is not a good predictor of intubation.
Trials with healthy volunteers have shown that emergency ambulance transportation induces stress, which becomes evident by an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and plasma levels of stress hormones such as adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and prolactin. A study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that emergency ambulance transportation may also lead to stress in patients with acute coronary syndrome.
Venous plasma levels of epinephrine, norepinephrine and lactate as well as visual analogue scale (VAS) scores for pain and anxiety were measured in 32 patients with defined clinical signs of acute coronary syndrome before and after transportation. Heart rate, blood pressure and transcutaneous oxygen saturation levels were recorded every 3 min.
Mean (SD) plasma levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine increased significantly (p<0.01) during transportation (159.29 (55.34) ng/l and 632.53 (156.32) ng/l before transportation vs 211.03 (70.12) ng/l and 782.93 (173.95) ng/l after transportation), while lactate levels, heart rate and mean blood pressure remained almost stable. There was no significant change in mean (SD) VAS scores for pain and anxiety (3.79 (3.70) and 2.89 (3.01) vs 2.13 (3.30) and 1.57 (2.78)).
Emergency ambulance transportation induces a rise in plasma catecholamine levels and therefore stress in patients with acute coronary syndrome, but does not result in cardiac shock as lactate levels and haemodynamic parameters remain normal.
Acute soft tissue wounds are commonly seen in the prehospital setting. It was hypothesised that there is a lack of consistency in early management of trauma wounds, particularly in the dressings used.
In January 2007 a questionnaire-based study was undertaken to evaluate the early management of such injuries. All 13 UK ambulance services were contacted, as well as 2 voluntary ambulance services. The questionnaire considered the implementation of a wound treatment policy and staff training, immediate wound management including haemostasis, cleansing, analgesia, dressings and the use of antibiotics.
The response rate was 100%. Only 27% of services had a wound treatment policy in place, but all services implemented staff training. All services regularly achieved haemostasis of wounds using a combination of pressure and elevation. Regular cleansing was performed by 47% of services and those that did so used normal saline or water. All ambulance services administered analgesics. The most commonly used analgesics were Entonox and intravenous morphine. Other analgesics administered were paracetamol and ibuprofen. No local anaesthesia was used. Dressings were applied regularly by all services; 13 different types of dressings were in regular use.
This study confirmed that there is currently no national standard protocol for early acute wound management in the prehospital care setting. The key areas for improvement are cleansing, simplification of dressings and the introduction of standardised protocols and teaching.